[/============================================================================
  Boost.odeint

  Copyright 2011-2012 Karsten Ahnert
  Copyright 2011-2013 Mario Mulansky
  Copyright 2012 Sylwester Arabas

  Use, modification and distribution is subject to the Boost Software License,
  Version 1.0. (See accompanying file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at
  http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt)
=============================================================================/]

[section State types, algebras and operations]

In odeint the stepper algorithms are implemented independently of the
underlying fundamental mathematical operations.
This is realized by giving the user full control over the state type and the
mathematical operations for this state type.
Technically, this is done by introducing three concepts: StateType, Algebra,
Operations.
Most of the steppers in odeint expect three class types fulfilling these
concepts as template parameters.
Note that these concepts are not fully independent of each other but rather a
valid combination must be provided in order to make the steppers work.
In the following we will give some examples on reasonable
state_type-algebra-operations combinations.
For the most common state types, like `vector<double>` or `array<double,N>`
the default values range_algebra and default_operations are perfectly fine and
odeint can be used as is without worrying about algebra/operations at all.

[important state_type, algebra and operations are not independent, a valid
combination must be provided to make odeint work properly]

Moreover, as odeint handles the memory required for intermediate temporary
objects itself, it also needs knowledge about how to create state_type objects
and maybe how to allocate memory (resizing).
All in all, the following things have to be taken care of when odeint is used
with non-standard state types:

* construction/destruction
* resizing (if possible/required)
* algebraic operations

Again, odeint already provides basic interfaces for most of the usual state
types.
So if you use a `std::vector`, or a `std::array` as state type no additional
work is required, they just work out of the box.

[section Construction/Resizing]

We distinguish between two basic state types: fixed sized and dynamically
sized.
For fixed size state types the default constructor `state_type()` already
allocates the required memory, prominent example is `std:array<T,N>`.
Dynamically sized types have to be resized to make sure enough memory is
allocated, the standard constructor does not take care of the resizing.
Examples for this are the STL containers like `vector<double>`.

The most easy way of getting your own state type to work with odeint is to use
a fixed size state, base calculations on the range_algebra and provide the
following functionality:
[table
  [[Name] [Expression] [Type] [Semantics]]
  [[Construct State] [`State x()`] [`void`] [Creates an instance of `State`
  and allocates memory.] ]
  [[Begin of the sequence] [boost::begin(x)] [Iterator] [Returns an iterator
  pointing to the begin of the sequence]]
  [[End of the sequence] [boost::end(x)] [Iterator] [Returns an iterator
  pointing to the end of the sequence]]
]

[warning If your state type does not allocate memory by default construction,
you [*must define it as resizeable] and provide resize functionality (see
below). Otherwise segmentation faults will occur.]

So fixed sized arrays supported by __boost_range immediately work with odeint.
For dynamically sized arrays one has to additionally supply the resize
functionality.
First, the state has to be tagged as resizeable by specializing the struct
`is_resizeable` which consists of one typedef and one bool value:
[table
  [[Name] [Expression] [Type] [Semantics]]
  [[Resizability] [`is_resizeable<State>::type`]
    [`boost::true_type` or `boost::false_type`] 
    [Determines resizeability of the state type, returns `boost::true_type` if
    the state is resizeable.]]
  [[Resizability] [`is_resizeable<State>::value`]
    [`bool`] 
    [Same as above, but with `bool` value.]]
]

Defining `type` to be `true_type` and `value` as `true` tells odeint that your
state is resizeable.
By default, odeint now expects the support of `boost::size(x)` and a
`x.resize( boost::size(y) )` member function for resizing:
[table
  [[Name] [Expression] [Type] [Semantics]]
  [[Get size] [`boost::size( x )`]
    [`size_type`] [Returns the current size of x.]]
  [[Resize] [`x.resize( boost::size( y ) )`]
    [`void`] [Resizes x to have the same size as y.]]
]

[section Using the container interface]
[import ../examples/my_vector.cpp]

As a first example we take the most simple case and implement our own vector
`my_vector` which will provide a container interface.
This makes __boost_range working out-of-box.
We add a little functionality to our vector which makes it allocate some 
default capacity by construction.
This is helpful when using resizing as then a resize can be assured to not 
require a new allocation.

[my_vector]


The only thing that has to be done other than defining is thus declaring 
my_vector as resizeable:

[my_vector_resizeable]

If we wouldn't specialize the `is_resizeable` template, the code would still
compile but odeint would not adjust the size of temporary internal instances
of my_vector and hence try to fill zero-sized vectors resulting in
segmentation faults!
The full example can be found in [github_link examples/my_vector.cpp my_vector.cpp]

[endsect]

[section std::list]

If your state type does work with __boost_range, but handles resizing
differently you are required to specialize two implementations used by odeint
to check a state's size and to resize:
[table
  [[Name] [Expression] [Type] [Semantics]]
  [[Check size] [`same_size_impl<State,State>::same_size(x , y)`]
    [`bool`] [Returns true if the size of x equals the size of y.]]
  [[Resize] [`resize_impl<State,State>::resize(x , y)`]
    [`void`] [Resizes x to have the same size as y.]]
]

As an example we will use a `std::list` as state type in odeint.
Because `std::list` is not supported by `boost::size` we have to replace the
same_size and resize implementation to get list to work with odeint.
The following code shows the required template specializations:

[import ../examples/list_lattice.cpp]

[list_bindings]

With these definitions odeint knows how to resize `std::list`s and so they can
be used as state types.
A complete example can be found in [github_link examples/list_lattice.cpp list_lattice.cpp].

[endsect]

[endsect]

[section Algebras and Operations]

To provide maximum flexibility odeint is implemented in a highly modularized
way. This means it is possible to change the underlying mathematical
operations without touching the integration algorithms.
The fundamental mathematical operations are those of a vector space, that is
addition of `state_types` and multiplication of `state_type`s with a scalar
(`time_type`). In odeint this is realized in two concepts: _Algebra_ and
_Operations_. 
The standard way how this works is by the range algebra which provides
functions that apply a specific operation to each of the individual elements
of a container based on the __boost_range library.
If your state type is not supported by __boost_range there are several
possibilities to tell odeint how to do algebraic operations:

* Implement `boost::begin` and `boost::end` for your state type so it works
with __boost_range.
* Implement vector-vector addition operator `+` and scalar-vector
multiplication operator `*` and use the non-standard `vector_space_algebra`.
* Implement your own algebra that implements the required functions.

[section GSL Vector]

In the following example we will try to use the `gsl_vector` type from __gsl (GNU
Scientific Library) as state type in odeint.
We will realize this by implementing a wrapper around the gsl_vector that
takes care of construction/destruction.
Also, __boost_range is extended such that it works with `gsl_vector`s as well
which required also the implementation of a new `gsl_iterator`.

[note odeint already includes all the code presented here, see [github_link
boost/numeric/odeint/external/gsl/gsl_wrapper.hpp gsl_wrapper.hpp], so `gsl_vector`s
can be used straight out-of-box.
The following description is just for educational purpose.] 

The GSL is a C library, so `gsl_vector` has neither constructor, nor
destructor or any `begin` or `end` function, no iterators at all.
So to make it work with odeint plenty of things have to be implemented.
Note that all of the work shown here is already included in odeint, so using
`gsl_vector`s in odeint doesn't require any further adjustments.
We present it here just as an educational example.
We start with defining appropriate constructors and destructors.
This is done by specializing the `state_wrapper` for `gsl_vector`.
State wrappers are used by the steppers internally to create and manage
temporary instances of state types:

``
template<>
struct state_wrapper< gsl_vector* >
{
    typedef double value_type;
    typedef gsl_vector* state_type;
    typedef state_wrapper< gsl_vector* > state_wrapper_type;

    state_type m_v;

    state_wrapper( )
    {
        m_v = gsl_vector_alloc( 1 );
    }

    state_wrapper( const state_wrapper_type &x )
    {
        resize( m_v , x.m_v );
        gsl_vector_memcpy( m_v , x.m_v );
    }


    ~state_wrapper()
    {
        gsl_vector_free( m_v );
    }

};
``

This `state_wrapper` specialization tells odeint how gsl_vectors are created,
copied and destroyed.
Next we need resizing, this is required because gsl_vectors are dynamically
sized objects:
``
template<>
struct is_resizeable< gsl_vector* >
{
    typedef boost::true_type type;
    const static bool value = type::value;
};

template <>
struct same_size_impl< gsl_vector* , gsl_vector* >
{
    static bool same_size( const gsl_vector* x , const gsl_vector* y )
    {
        return x->size == y->size;
    }
};

template <>
struct resize_impl< gsl_vector* , gsl_vector* >
{
    static void resize( gsl_vector* x , const gsl_vector* y )
    {
        gsl_vector_free( x );
        x = gsl_vector_alloc( y->size );
    }
};
``

Up to now, we defined creation/destruction and resizing, but gsl_vectors also
don't support iterators, so we first implement a gsl iterator:

``
/*
 * defines an iterator for gsl_vector
 */
class gsl_vector_iterator 
      : public boost::iterator_facade< gsl_vector_iterator , double , 
                                       boost::random_access_traversal_tag >
{
public :

    gsl_vector_iterator( void ): m_p(0) , m_stride( 0 ) { }
    explicit gsl_vector_iterator( gsl_vector *p ) : m_p( p->data ) , m_stride( p->stride ) { }
    friend gsl_vector_iterator end_iterator( gsl_vector * );

private :

    friend class boost::iterator_core_access;
    friend class const_gsl_vector_iterator;

    void increment( void ) { m_p += m_stride; }
    void decrement( void ) { m_p -= m_stride; }
    void advance( ptrdiff_t n ) { m_p += n*m_stride; }
    bool equal( const gsl_vector_iterator &other ) const { return this->m_p == other.m_p; }
    bool equal( const const_gsl_vector_iterator &other ) const;
    double& dereference( void ) const { return *m_p; }

    double *m_p;
    size_t m_stride;
};
``
A similar class exists for the `const` version of the iterator.
Then we have a function returning the end iterator (similarly for `const` again):
``
gsl_vector_iterator end_iterator( gsl_vector *x )
{
    gsl_vector_iterator iter( x );
    iter.m_p += iter.m_stride * x->size;
    return iter;
}
``

Finally, the bindings for __boost_range are added:
``
// template<>
inline gsl_vector_iterator range_begin( gsl_vector *x )
{
    return gsl_vector_iterator( x );
}

// template<>
inline gsl_vector_iterator range_end( gsl_vector *x )
{
    return end_iterator( x );
}
``
Again with similar definitions for the `const` versions.
This eventually makes odeint work with gsl vectors as state types.
The full code for these bindings is found in [github_link
boost/numeric/odeint/external/gsl/gsl_wrapper.hpp gsl_wrapper.hpp].
It might look rather complicated but keep in mind that gsl is a pre-compiled C
library.
[endsect]


[section Vector Space Algebra]

As seen above, the standard way of performing algebraic operations on 
container-like state types in odeint is to iterate through the elements of the 
container and perform the operations element-wise on the underlying value type.
This is realized by means of the `range_algebra` that uses __boost_range for 
obtaining iterators of the state types.
However, there are other ways to implement the algebraic operations on 
containers, one of which is defining the addition/multiplication operators for 
the containers directly and then using the `vector_space_algebra`.
If you use this algebra, the following operators have to be defined for the 
state_type:

[table
  [[Name] [Expression] [Type] [Semantics]]
  [[Addition] [`x + y`] [`state_type`] [Calculates the vector sum 'x+y'.]]
  [[Assign addition] [`x += y`] [`state_type`] [Performs x+y in place.]]
  [[Scalar multiplication] [`a * x `] [`state_type`] [Performs multiplication of vector x with scalar a.]]
  [[Assign scalar multiplication] [`x *= a`] [`state_type`] [Performs in-place multiplication of vector x with scalar a.]]
]

Defining these operators makes your state type work with any basic Runge-Kutta 
stepper.
However, if you want to use step-size control, some more functionality is 
required.
Specifically, operations like 
[' max[sub i]( |err[sub i]| / (alpha * |s[sub i]|) )]
have to be performed.
['err] and ['s] are state_types, alpha is a scalar.
As you can see, we need element wise absolute value and division as well as an 
reduce operation to get the maximum value.
So for controlled steppers the following things have to be implemented:

[table
  [[Name] [Expression] [Type] [Semantics]]
  [[Division] [`x / y`] [`state_type`] [Calculates the element-wise division 'x/y']]
  [[Absolute value] [`abs( x )`] [`state_type`] [Element wise absolute value]]
  [[Reduce] [`vector_space_reduce_impl< state_type >::reduce( state , operation , init )`] [`value_type`] 
    [Performs the `operation` for subsequently each element of `state` and returns the aggregate value.
    E.g.
    
`init = operator( init , state[0] );`

`init = operator( init , state[1] )`

`...`
    ]]
]

[endsect]

[/
[section Boost.Ublas]
As an example for the employment of the `vector_space_algebra` we will adopt
`ublas::vector` from __ublas to work as a state type in odeint.
This is particularly easy because `ublas::vector` supports vector-vector
addition and scalar-vector multiplication described above as well as `boost::size`.
It also has a resize member function so all that has to be done in this case
is to declare resizability:

[import ../examples/ublas/lorenz_ublas.cpp]

[ublas_resizeable]

Now ublas::vector can be used as state type for simple Runge-Kutta steppers 
in odeint by specifying the `vector_space_algebra` as algebra in the template 
parameter list of the stepper. 
The following code shows the corresponding definitions:

[ublas_main]

Note again, that we haven't supported the requirements for controlled steppers,
but only for simple Runge-Kutta methods.
You can find the full example in [github_link
examples/ublas/lorenz_ublas.cpp lorenz_ublas.cpp].

[endsect]
/]

[section Point type]

[import ../examples/lorenz_point.cpp]

Here we show how to implement the required operators on a state type.
As example we define a new class `point3D` representing a three-dimensional
vector with components x,y,z and define addition and scalar multiplication
operators for it.
We use __boost_operators to reduce the amount of code to be written.
The class for the point type looks as follows:

[point3D]

By deriving from __boost_operators classes we don't have to define outer class
operators like `operator+( point3D , point3D )` because that is taken care of
by the operators library.
Note that for simple Runge-Kutta schemes (like `runge_kutta4`) only the `+`
and `*` operators are required.
If, however, a controlled stepper is used one also needs to specify the
division operator `/` because calculation of the error term involves an
element wise division of the state types.
Additionally, controlled steppers require an `abs` function calculating the
element-wise absolute value for the state type:

[point3D_abs_div]

Finally, we have to provide a specialization to calculate the infintity norm of a state:

[point3D_norm]

Again, note that the two last steps were only required if you want to use
controlled steppers.
For simple steppers definition of the simple `+=` and `*=` operators are
sufficient.
Having defined such a point type, we can easily perform the integration on a Lorenz
system by explicitely configuring the `vector_space_algebra` in the stepper's
template argument list:

[point3D_main]

The whole example can be found in [github_link
examples/lorenz_point.cpp lorenz_point.cpp]

[note For the most `state_types`, odeint is able to automatically determine
the correct algebra and operations. But if you want to use your own `state_type`, as in this
example with `point3D`, you have to manually configure the right
algebra/operations, unless your `state_type` works with the default choice of
`range_algebra` and `default_operations`.]

[endsect]

[endsect]

gsl_vector, gsl_matrix, ublas::matrix, blitz::matrix, thrust

[section Adapt your own operations]

to be continued

*thrust
*gsl_complex
*min, max, pow

[endsect]



[endsect]
